Scaffolding

Scaffolding may be erected using traditional tubes and working platform.

The following terms are used to identify the component parts of a traditional tube and fitting scaffold:

• Standard: upright member.
• Ledger: horizontal member normally in the direction of the larger dimension of the working scaffold.
• Transom: horizontal member normally in the direction of the smaller dimensions of the working scaffold
• Putlog: horizontal member, flattened on one end, spanning from a ledger to sit in the pointing of brickwork.
• Raker: an inclined load-­bearing member used to support a cantilevered working platform.
• Façade bracing: bracing parallel to the façade of the building
• Ledger Bracing: Bracing perpendicular to the face of the building.
• Eyebolt: means of securing scaffold to the building.
• Through Tie: means of securing scaffold to the building.
• Reveal Tie: means of securing scaffold to the building.
• Base plate: plate used for spreading the load in a standard over a greater area; a base jack is a base plate with a means of vertical adjustment.
• Sole Board: a timber plank positioned beneath two or more base plates to distribute the scaffold load more evenly over the ground.
• Coupler: device used to connect two tubes.
• Platform: one or more platform units in one level within a bay.
• Bay: the distance between pairs of standards.
• Lift: a storey.

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TYPES OF HOSES - Fire Safety

Hoses are flexible pipe used to convey water from the source to the scene of fire.

TYPES OF HOSE : 

1. DELIVERY HOSE 
2. SUCTION HOSE 
3. HOSE REEL HOSE

1) Delivery Hose

This is connected to the discharge side of the pump. This is subjected to a pressure greater than the atmospheric pressure. These are available in the Fallowing type:

(i) Percolating / Unlined / Canvas hose which are made of vegetable fibers.
(ii) Non percolating hose made up of plastic material forming both lining as well as the outer cover. These are no porous in nature.
(iii) Controlled percolating hose consisting of a jacket woven from vegetable fibers and having rubber / plastic lining.

2) Suction Hose

These are connected to the suction side of the pump. These are subjected to either above or below the atmospheric pressure. These are of following
types:
(i) Partially embedded
(ii) Smooth Bore fully embedded.

3) Hose Reel

These are made of reinforced rubber fitted with a swiveling joint bound over a reel. A squeeze nozzle is provided at one end.

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METHODS OF EXTINGUISHING FIRES

Method	Aim	Means
Remove Oxygen	Smother the fire.	Introduces a barrier between the fuel and the oxygen, e.g. a lid, mineral fibre blanket, foam, sand or carbon dioxide.
Remove Heat	Reduce the temperature of the fuel (and surroundings) to below the ignition temperature.	Uses water, etc. Some of the heat is transferred to the water and some is used up during the conversion of water to steam.
Remove Fuel	Shut off the supply of flammable gases or liquids.	Uses of valves, etc.

There are two main types of fire extinguishing systems: 

Fixed Installations, e.g. sprinkler, foam spray and gas flood systems; 

Portable Extinguishers, e.g. hand held or on a wheeled trolley.

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Portable Fire Fighting Equipment

The main types of Portable Fire Fighting Equipment are Fire Extinguishers.

In most countries portable appliances must be coloured red and display a distinguishing coloured label, usually on its collar, to identify the type of extinguishing agent contained. These are as follows:

• Water : Red
• Chemical foam : Cream
• Carbon dioxide : Black
• Dry powder : Blue

In addition, each appliance has to have the date of its last inspection marked on it.

Water Extinguishers:

Stored - pressure extinguishers must be checked to ensure that the pressure is correct, that the hoses and nozzles are not blocked and there is no corrosion. They should be discharged annually.

Gas - cartridge extinguishers should be opened annually and the working parts and contents checked. The gas cartridge should be weighed to check for losses and the sealing washer examined. They should be discharged every five years.

Foam Extinguishers:

These should be opened annually and checked to ensure that no clogging has occurred and all the working parts are in good order. Gas cartridges should be weighed and losses in excess of 10% will require replacement. 

The Extinguisher, if pre-mixed, should be discharged every two years, or if the compound is kept separate, every four years. All foam extinguishers must be thoroughly washed out after discharging.

Dry Powder Extinguishers:

Examination should be once a year for all the features covered for the other extinguishers. With the gas cartridge type, which can be opened, the powder should be checked to ensure it has not caked. They should be discharged every five years.

Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers:

The contents should be checked by weighing or by gamma ray to ensure there is no loss. The working parts should be examined and the horn checked for freedom of movement. Every 10 years, or when discharged, the cylinder should be hydraulically tested.  After 20 years the test should be every five years.

Vaporising Liquid Extinguishers:

Annual working order checks are required by weighing the contents. The extinguishers should be checked by discharge every five years.

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Accidents in Terms of injury

There are several categories of accidents in terms of injury and these include: 

• Slips/trips/falls
• Falls from height 
• Falling objects 
• Collision with objects 
• Trapping/crushing under or between objects
• Manual handling 
• Contact with machinery/hand tools 
• Electricity 
• Transport 
• Contact with chemicals 
• Asphyxiation/drowning
• Fire and explosion 
• Animals
• Violence - either verbal or physical 

Health hazards 

Risk assessment is not only concerned with injuries in the workplace but also possible occupational health problems. Health hazards fall into four categories; 

• Chemical - paints, solvents, fumes. 
• Biological- bacteria e.g. leptospirosis, viruses. 
• Physical - noise, vibration, radiation. 
• Psychological- occupational stress. 

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Principles of an Alarm System

Sounding an alarm in the event of fire and fighting the fire arrangement must be made at all the workplaces.

There are many systems for raising an alarm on detecting an outbreak of fire, ranging from simple hand bells (or even just shouting) to sophisticated electronically-­triggered systems. However, whatever system is employed, all staff must know how to raise an alarm on discovering fire and what to do when the fire alarm sounds.

The general principles of an alarm system are shown below.

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FIRE TETRAHEDRON

There are basic 3 element need to produce fire.

• HEAT
• FUEL
• OXYGEN

if one of component is not presents the fire will not created.

Beside 3 elements there is forth element which is essential for continuation of fire once ignited.this is known as "CHAIN REACTION".

Once fire occurs the burned substunce produce lots of heat which tends to burn remaining fuel substance.this reaction occurs again and again.which is called "chain reaction"

Fire is OXIDATION process which produce heat its is also called EXOTHERMIC reaction..

OXIDATION = EXOTHERMIC R. = PRODUCE HEAT.
REDUCTION = ENDOTHERMIC R. = ABSORB HEAT.

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Causes of accidents - Environmental factors

We now have information on what types of accidents happen, but not why they occur.

There are three groups of factors that contribute to accidents:

• Environmental
• Human
• Occupational

Any accident report and investigation should identify which factors were the cause.

Environmental factors

Concerned with the workplace and the conditions of the workplace which affect the employee.

Organisation of the workplace

The layout of the workplace including access, transport, space, overcrowding, cleanliness and waste

disposal, housekeeping, cleaning schedule.

Environmental stressors

Temperature, ventilation, humidity, lighting, noise. These can be associated closely with occupational factors, e.g. physical.

Welfare

Washing facilities, toilets, drinking water, amenity areas, accommodation for clothes, changing rooms, rest and meal facilities.

Structural

Slips, trips and falls, staircases, falls from a height, doors, gates, windows, roads, floors, and traffic routes.

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